Alternation of consonants at the root of the letter f. Word - Alternation of consonant sounds in the root of a word

The smallest meaningful parts of a word are called morphemes. Significant parts of a word include root, prefix, suffix, connecting morpheme, ending, postfix. All morphemes, except the ending, are part of the word stem.

• Let's look at this part of the word as a root.

The root is the main significant part of a word, which contains the general lexical meaning of all related words. For example, the root -voz- contains the general lexical meaning of the words to carry, cabbie, give a lift.

As a rule, the root in related words is always the same, except in cases where alternations of sounds occur in the word. So, you should remember some historical alternations in order to be able to correctly find the root in a word:

• 1) g\f\z - friend - friends - friends;
• 2) t\ h\ sh- light - candle - lighting;
• 3) d\f\zhd- labor- toiling- to bother;
• 4) a\ o - sprout;
• 5) e\ i - shine - shine;
• 6) b\bl- love- love;
• 7) in\vl- catch- catching;
• 8) m\ml- break- refraction;
• 9) p\pl- thrash- thrash;
• 10) f\ fl- graph-graph.

Cognate words and forms of the same word

It is necessary to distinguish between words with the same root and forms of the same word.

Cognates have a common root, but can have different meanings and refer to different parts of speech, for example: salt, salty, salt. Cognate words are formed in a language in the process of word formation.

Forms of the same word retain a single lexical meaning and, naturally, refer to one part of speech, for example: work - worked, work, worked, worked. In this case, the process of shaping occurs. During shaping no new words are formed, but only new forms of the same word appear.

So, the verb to read has many forms, for example: read, reading, reading. In the above words, the suffixes -л-, -уш-, -я- are formative and do not play any role in the process of word formation. Therefore, it cannot be said that the word reading is just one of the forms of the verb to read. Thus, the participle reading, like reading, reading, reading, is non-derivative.

Alternating vowels in roots

The spelling of a vowel depends on the place of stress

1) First case: if at the root no accent the letter o is written, if there- a vowel that is heard.

• -gar-\ -gor-
• -clan-\ -clone-
• -creation-\ -creation-

Example: Sunbathing, Tanning, Bend, Bow, Bow, Creation, Creativity.

Exceptions: burnt utensils

2) Second case: if at the root no accent written a, if there- a vowel that is heard.

• -zar-\ -zor-

Example: Dawn, Glow, Lightning, Illumination

The spelling of the vowel depends on the presence of the suffix -a- after the root

1) First case: written a, if behind the root there is a suffix -a-. In other cases it is written about

• a\o
• -kas-\ -kos-

Example: touch, touch

2) Second case: In the roots listed below, the letter is written and, if behind the root there is a suffix -a-, in all other cases - the letter e.

• e\ and
• -ber-\ -bir-,
• -brilliant-\ -brilliant-,
• -der-\ -dir-,
• -burnt-\ -zhig-,
• -mer-\ -world-,
• -per-\ -pir-,
• -steel-\ -steel-,
• -ter-\ -tir-,
• -cheat-\ -cheat-

Example: I will collect, collect, shine, shine, pull away, run away, burn out, burn out, freeze, freeze, subtract, subtract.

Remember the spelling of words: s combine, combination, couple, show off, rider, saddle, but: nurse, sit

The spelling of the vowel depends on the th consonant of the root, which is located at the end of the word

1) First case: before the letter Mr. before w-oh.

• -lag-\ -false-

Example: offer, offer

In a syllable they are combined with other sounds. Unlike vowels, consonants do not form the apex of a syllable. In the course of changing and improving the lexical structure, words undergo various transformations. In particular, some written signs can replace others. One type of transformation is the alternation of consonants in What is it? How does this change happen? More on this later.

general information

Acoustically, consonants have relatively less total energy than vowels and may not have a clear formant structure. When pronouncing sounds, the vocal tract narrows. As a result, the air flow is completely or partially blocked, which, when encountering an obstacle, begins to change its direction. In the Russian language, there are noisy consonants (affricates, fricatives, plosives), a group of sonorants (lateral and smooth), and a semi-consonant (semi-vowel) “th”. There are also sonorant sounds - tremulous and nasal.

Consonant alternation

Among the most typical combinations, the following should be noted:

• z - f - g (friends - girlfriend - girlfriend);
• ts - ch - k (face - face - face);
• s - w - x (goblin - forest, plowing - to plow);
• zh - d (rejuvenation - young, go - ride);
• shch - sk (polished - gloss);
• shch - st (paved-bridge);
• bl-b (ruin - ruin);
• ow - in (catching - catching);
• ml - m (feed - feed);
• pl - p (buy-buy) and others.

The rules of the Russian language explain such examples by the process of simplifying pronunciation. In this case, the original meaning of sounds is lost. In doubtful cases, alternation of consonants in the root of the word is used for verification.

The original appearance of the structure

In some cases, there is some difficulty with which sound is considered the main one in the design. Having one or another alternation of consonants in the root of a word, it is necessary to understand what meaning is introduced into the new structure. So, for example, “girlfriend” is a derivative of “friend,” and the variant “girlfriend” is formed, in all likelihood, under the influence of such a form as “druzhina,” which itself is a simplification of “friend, other, friend.” This kind of word change can lead to a lot of confusion in the future. As a result, the original sound and semantic clarity is lost.

"C - C - K"

This alternation of consonants at the root of a word has its own characteristics. The original (original) design is “face”. Subsequently, after the transformation, the word "face" appears. Here the sound "k" changes to "ts". The design changes further. The result is the word "face". According to interpretation options, there are different meanings of the resulting syllables. So, for example, “ko” is “surface, shell”, “tso” is defined as “complete connection”, and “chi” is “reproduction or complete continuation”. As a result, the modified constructions have different meanings: “rejoicing, appearance” (from “lik”), “larva, larva, excellent” (from “lich”), “facing, obverse” (from face).

"H-Sh"

Let's consider the alternation of consonants in the root of the word "plow". Initially, it must be said that this design is a derivative of “groin”. “To plow” in the ancient interpretation is to cultivate the womb for reproduction and sowing. And only subsequently a semantic transfer to the cultivation and cultivation of the soil in the farming process was formed and embodied. Until now, the impersonal verb form has retained the “groin” construction, while the personal forms are pronounced with “sh”. For example: “plow-plow-plow.”

The alternation of consonants in the root of the word “forest” occurs according to approximately the same principle. How does the design change in this case? As soon as “forest” begins to illustrate something “forest”, but at the same time “personified”, “w” appears instead of “s”. For example, "goblin". At the same time, if something extraneous is designated, something not directly inherent in the forest, the “s” is retained in the design. For example, "forester".

"St/sk - Shch"

The same rules of the Russian language are involved in changing the construction with the stem "sk". In this case, the same “sign of something peculiar, personal, inherent in the perceiver, connected with meaning” takes place. For example: “gloss-polished” and “bridge-paved”. In the first case, sensations come forward - it feels polished to the touch, which means with a gloss. At the same time, “gloss” is something unrelated to a person, but “polished” is the embodiment of perception, human sensation.

The same can be seen in other examples. For example, such constructions as “forgive” - “forgiveness”, “tillering” - “tillering” and so on. It should be noted, however, that such a change in “st-sch” takes place not only in the root, but also in the suffix. For example: “thinness” - “thin”, “dryness” - “lean”. Presumably, it was these “naturally necessary” transformations that began to be transferred to other structural elements.

"L"

In some way, a special form of perception is visible when this sound appears in a modified structure. When “l” appears in the composition, “structure, harmony, internal state” is added to the meaning. Examples include third person verbs: I destroy, I love, I make noise, I crush, I buy, I endure. At the same time, in other personal forms of these constructions the sound “l” is absent: ruin, love, crush, buy, make noise, endure. This alternation of consonants can be explained fundamentally as follows: the appearance of “l” in the first person, that is, in constructions reflecting something “personal, relating to me,” is a manifestation of one’s own “I”, internal state. But the rest: “you, she, they” and so on - this is external, something not related to the perceiver, that is, “outside me,” which is why the “l” is absent there.

1. Root- the general part of related words, which contains their main meaning. Words with the same root are called cognate.

Water, water, underwater, submarine, surface, flood, flood, etc.

A root can consist of several sounds ( it's coming) or from one sound ( sing you).

2. Compound words have two or more roots.

Water pipeline, ever green, white, blue and red.

In compound words, the root (or roots) can be presented in truncated form.

Correspondent point - correspondent point, university - higher education institution.

3. In the Russian language there are homonym roots.

Water, underwater - water, conductor; cheese, cheese ok, cheese - cheese oh, damp, damp.

4. When words and forms are formed, the sound appearance of a word may change. These are usually historical alternations of vowels and consonants. They must be taken into account when identifying roots, when selecting test words of the same root, etc.

Wed: book - little book; plow - plow; shine - candle, lighting; mouth - mouth.

Let us give examples of the most frequent alternations of sounds.

Vowel alternation

Consonant alternation

Alternating combinations of sounds

Note!

If one consonant alternates with a combination of consonants, then this combination is completely included in the root, and the new suffix is ​​not allocated. In words like feeding (feed), I love (be in love), blindness (blind) l is not a new suffix, but is part of the root!

5. Most roots of the Russian language are capable of independently forming the stem of a word.

Wed: table, lion, walls and etc.

At the same time, some roots cannot be found in a language without word-forming prefixes and suffixes.

For example, the root st- ( street itsa, lane ok); root pt- ( pt itsa, pt enets); root rob-( timid cue, timidity), howl- ( howl, howl, howl). In the last word warrior the root war- is superimposed on the suffix -in (cf.: townsman, Englishman).

6. In the course of historical development, the morphemic composition of a word can change. The most common process in this case is the simplification of the morphemic structure of the word, or simplification. The essence of this process is that the prefix and the root, less often the root and the suffix, merge together, and then a new root is formed.

For example, in the word air one root is now distinguished - air, whereas previously the root was highlighted in this word spirit and prefix WHO-. In the word taste, the prefix was previously distinguished V- and root bite(cf.: bite), and now it is a single root. In the word red, the root was previously highlighted red and suffix -n-, and currently red- is completely the root.

The process of simplification is gradual, and in modern Russian one can find quite a lot of transitional cases. That is why in different manuals, in different word-formation dictionaries and dictionaries of morphemes, different roots can be identified in the same word.

For example, some linguists identify the root in the word image once-(same root words - strike, striking), and other researchers believe that the former prefix and root have already merged into one root - image-.

7. Isolating the etymological, that is, the original morphemes in a simplified word can be important for spelling the word.

For example, in the word pleasant the prefix was previously highlighted at- and root I- (yati"take"). Console at- originally had the meaning “to bring closer, to join.” That is why in modern Russian the vowel and is written in this former prefix.

Alternation of sounds (allophones) and phonemes - their mutual replacement in the same morpheme in different cases of use, acting as a main or additional morphological indicator ( nose-it/carry; can-y / can-eat), that is, it can be determined not only by phonetic, but also by word-formation or morphological reasons. Such alternations accompany the formation of words and their forms.

Alternants can differ quantitatively (longitude of sound) or qualitatively (method of formation, place of formation).

Based on the nature of the alternation conditions, two types are distinguished:

• phonetic (also called automatic alternations);
• non-phonetic - traditional, historical.

Phonetic alternations

Changes in sounds in the flow of speech that are caused by modern phonetic processes. Such alternations are determined by the phonetic patterns operating in the language; the change in sound is associated with the position of the sound, but does not change the composition of phonemes in the morpheme:

1) alternation of stressed and unstressed vowels: n(o)s - n(^)-hundredth - n(ъ) owl;

2) alternation of voiced and voiceless consonants: moro(s), (moroz) - moro(z)ny.

Phonetic alternations are always positional; they serve as material for determining the phonemic composition of the language.

Phonetic alternations are divided into positional and combinatorial.

1. Positional - alternations determined by place relative to stress or word boundary. This type of phonetic alternation includes deafening and reduction.

2. Combinatorial - alternations caused by the presence of other specific sounds in the environment of a given sound ( accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation).

Non-phonetic (historical) alternations

Alternants of historical alternations are independent phonemes; such alternations can be either positional or non-positional:

Positional (morphological) alternations take place with regular formation (in certain grammatical forms, for example, drive - drive, look - look) and word formation through certain morphemes. They are the object of study of morphonology. The alternations vary:

• by the nature of alternating phonemes (alternating vowels and consonants);
• by position in the morpheme (on the morpheme seam and inside the morpheme);
• on the basis of productivity - unproductivity.

Non-positional (grammatical) alternations are not determined by position relative to a specific morpheme, but are usually themselves a means of word formation (for example, dry - dry) or shaping. They act as internal inflections and belong to the sphere of grammar.

Historical alternations of sounds, not determined by the phonetic position of the sound, which are a reflection of phonetic processes that operated in earlier periods of the development of the Russian language. They are also called morphological alternations, since they accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms, although they themselves are not exponents of grammatical meanings, and traditional alternations, since they are preserved by virtue of tradition, not being determined by either semantic necessity or the requirements of modern phonetic language systems.

Vowel alternation (in many cases these alternations became letter ones):

e/o: carry - carries, carry - carries;

e/o/zero sound/i: dial - dial - dial - dial;

e/zero sound: day - day, faithful - faithful;

o/a: cook - prepare;

o/zero sound: sleep - sleep, lie - lie, strong - strong;

o/zero sound/s: ambassador – send – send;

a(i) / m / im: reap - I press - shake, take - I'll take - collect;

a(i) / n / im: reap - reap - reap, crush - crush - crush;

y/ov: forge - to forge, I please - to please;

y/ev: spend the night - spend the night, heal - heal;

u/ev: I spit - I don’t care, I grieve - to grieve;

y/o/s: dry – dry up – dry up;

and / oh: beat - fight, drink - binge;

e/oh: sing - sing.

Consonant alternation:

g/f: shore - you protect, pearl - pearl, strict - stricter;

k/h: bake - bake, flour - flour;

w/w: hearing - listen, pea - pea, dry - drier;

g/z/f: friend - friends - friendly;

k/c/h: face - face - personal;

s/w: to carry - I drive, to smear - I smear, low - below;

zg / zzh (f): squeal – squeal;

zh / zzh (f): furrow - furrow;

s/w: wear - wear, dance - dance;

d/w: walk - walk, young - younger;

t/h: want - want, bother - bother;

sk / st / sch: let - let out - let in, thick - thicker;

b/bl: love - love, hesitate - hesitate;

p/pl: buy - buy, drip - drop;

v/vl: press - press, catch - catch;

f/fl: graph - graph;

m/ml: break - break, doze - doze;

d, t/s: lead - lead, weave - weave;

k, g/h: attract - attract, help - help.

In the Russian language, such a common phenomenon as alternating vowels in the root of a word (there are a lot of variations of alternation and roots with it), but there are also roots with alternating consonants. There are several most characteristic types of consonant changes and a certain explanation for this phenomenon as a whole. It deserves special attention, since such alternations must be remembered.

Alternation of consonants in the root of a word: which of them alternate with each other and why

In fact, there are a lot of options for alternating consonants at the root. Here are the most common pairs and threes:

g\f\z - friend - friends - friends; t\ h\ sh- light - candle - lighting; d\ w\ railway - labor - toiling - to bother; ts\h\k – face-face-face; s\sh\x - forest-goblin, plow-plowing; sh\sk-st - paved - paved, polished - gloss; b\bl- love - love; in\vl- catch- catching; m\ ml- break- refraction; n\pl- thrash- thrash; f\ fl- graph-graph.

The explanation of these processes by linguists is quite simple: the alternation was formed as a result of simplification of pronunciation, and the original meaning of the sounds was lost as this process progressed.

There is a somewhat ironic expression among scientists that sounds like “this is how it happened historically.” It explains many incomprehensible phenomena in the Russian language, including the alternation of consonants in the root. In fact, this explanation makes sense - behind every pair or trio of alternating consonants there is, at the root, a long process of linguistic change.

It is important to note that the meaning of the root does not change at all during alternation; units with alternating consonants in the root of the word continue to be considered related and form lexical groups. At the same time, it is not always possible to determine which sound is considered the main one, although in most cases some consonant is still taken as the starting point.

Typically, consonant alternation occurs at the end of the root, at its border with a suffix or ending. There are no rules according to which this alternation occurs; basically, you just need to remember it.

Before becoming established in written speech, that is, becoming the grammatical norm of the language, such alternations arose in the oral communication of people.

What have we learned?

In addition to roots with alternating vowels, of which there are a lot in the Russian language, there are also roots with alternating consonants. They form not only pairs, but also alternating triplets, while only the shape of the root changes, but not its meaning. That is, it turns out that words in which the roots have the same meaning and differ only in the consonant are as related as those in which the roots have the same appearance. The alternation of consonants is fundamentally a consequence of various historical processes, which ultimately led to a simplification of pronunciation and the loss of consonants of their original meaning. Initially, changes occurred in oral speech, and then were consolidated and codified in written language, becoming the norm of the Russian language.